Neuro-linguistic programming (NLP) is an approach to communication, personal development and change created by Richard Bandler and John Grinder in California in the 1970s. Its techniques aim to change how people think, feel and act by working with language, mental imagery and patterns of behaviour. Well-known NLP techniques include anchoring, reframing, the swish pattern, rapport building and the Meta Model.
Last updated: 10 November 2026
Reading time: about 11 minutes
How we wrote this article: this article was written by Saj Ali. It explains each technique as described in core NLP texts, gives step-by-step instructions, and links research on NLP-based and related methods, such as mental rehearsal and goal setting, to the original studies.
NLP techniques in brief
- Anchoring. Link a chosen feeling to a touch, word or gesture.
- Reframing. Change the meaning or context of an experience.
- Swish pattern. Replace an unwanted mental image with a desired one.
- Rapport. Match body language and pace to build connection.
- Well-formed outcomes. Define goals in positive, specific, sensory terms.
Contents
- What Is NLP?
- Key NLP Principles
- 1. Anchoring
- 2. Reframing
- 3. The Swish Pattern
- 4. The Rewind Technique (Fast Phobia Cure)
- 5. Rapport: Matching and Mirroring
- 6. The Meta Model
- 7. The Milton Model
- 8. Well-Formed Outcomes
- 9. Future Pacing
- 10. Submodalities
- 11. Perceptual Positions
- 12. Modelling
- 13. Circle of Excellence
- 14. Parts Integration
- 15. Timeline Work
- Research on NLP and Related Methods
- Frequently Asked Questions
- Key Takeaways
- Explore More on Self Help Supermarket
- Sources
What Is NLP?
NLP began at the University of California, Santa Cruz, in the early 1970s. Richard Bandler, then a student, and John Grinder, a linguistics professor, studied highly effective therapists, including family therapist Virginia Satir, Gestalt therapist Fritz Perls and hypnotherapist Milton Erickson. Their aim was to model what these experts did, so others could learn it.
The name describes three ideas:
| Part | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Neuro | How we experience the world through our senses and nervous system |
| Linguistic | How language shapes thought and communication |
| Programming | The habitual patterns of thinking and behaving that we can change |
Early books include The Structure of Magic (1975) and Frogs into Princes (1979). NLP is now used in coaching, sales, sport, education and therapy. Our NLP method guide covers its history and principles in more depth, and our profile of Richard Bandler covers its co-founder.
Key NLP Principles
NLP is built on working assumptions, called presuppositions, which shape how techniques are used:
| Presupposition | What it means in practice |
|---|---|
| The map is not the territory | Our mental picture of reality is not reality itself, so it can be updated |
| There is no failure, only feedback | Every result gives information for next time |
| The meaning of communication is the response you get | Adjust how you communicate until it works |
| People have all the resources they need | Change often means accessing strengths you already have |
| Behind every behaviour is a positive intention | Even unhelpful habits try to meet a need |
1. Anchoring
An anchor is a stimulus, such as a touch, word or gesture, linked to a particular emotional state. NLP uses anchors deliberately to recall helpful states like calm or confidence. The idea is similar to classical conditioning.
How to set a confidence anchor:
- Recall a time you felt fully confident. See what you saw, hear what you heard, feel what you felt.
- As the feeling peaks, press your thumb and finger together for a few seconds.
- Release, shake off the state, and think of something neutral.
- Repeat three to five times.
- Test it: press your thumb and finger together and notice the feeling return.
Use it before a presentation, interview or difficult conversation. See our guide to public speaking and stage fright.
2. Reframing
Reframing changes the meaning of an event by putting it in a different frame. NLP describes two types:
| Type | Question | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Content reframe | “What else could this mean?” | “I failed the test” becomes “I’ve found exactly what to study” |
| Context reframe | “Where would this behaviour be useful?” | “I’m too stubborn” becomes “My persistence is a strength in negotiations” |
Reframing is similar to cognitive reappraisal in psychology, a well-studied way to regulate emotions.
3. The Swish Pattern
The swish pattern replaces an unwanted habit or reaction by linking its trigger to a powerful image of the person you want to be.
Steps:
- Identify the trigger image, such as seeing a cigarette or your phone.
- Create a desired self-image: you, already free of the habit, looking confident.
- Picture the trigger image big and bright, with the desired image small and dark in one corner.
- In a fraction of a second, “swish” them: shrink and darken the trigger while the desired image grows big and bright.
- Clear your mind, then repeat five to seven times, faster each time.
See our guide to breaking bad habits.
4. The Rewind Technique (Fast Phobia Cure)
The rewind technique, also called visual-kinesthetic dissociation, is used for phobias and distressing memories. The person watches the memory as if on a cinema screen from a safe distance, then runs it backwards quickly, often in black and white or with silly music, to reduce its emotional charge.
A structured, research-tested version called Reconsolidation of Traumatic Memories (RTM) was trialled with 74 male veterans with PTSD. After three sessions, 71% of those treated no longer met the diagnosis for PTSD (Gray et al., 2019). Work with traumatic memories is best done with a trained practitioner. See our guide to fear and phobia.
5. Rapport: Matching and Mirroring
Rapport is a sense of connection and trust. NLP teaches building it by subtly matching another person’s:
- Posture and gestures
- Voice tone, speed and volume
- Breathing pace
- Key words and phrases
Matching should be natural and respectful, not mimicry. Once rapport is established, you can pace and lead: match the other person first, then gently shift your own state, for example from tense to calm, and they often follow. See our guide to social skills development.
6. The Meta Model
The Meta Model is a set of questions that clarify vague or limiting language. It helps uncover what someone really means.
| Language pattern | Example | Meta Model question |
|---|---|---|
| Generalisation | “Nobody ever listens to me.” | “Nobody? Ever?” |
| Deletion | “I’m stressed.” | “Stressed about what, specifically?” |
| Mind reading | “She thinks I’m useless.” | “How do you know?” |
| Rules | “I should be perfect.” | “What would happen if you weren’t?” |
| Cause and effect | “He makes me angry.” | “How exactly does what he does lead to you feeling angry?” |
These questions are useful in coaching and in your own self-talk. See our guide to perfectionism.
7. The Milton Model
The Milton Model is the reverse of the Meta Model. Based on the hypnotic language of Milton Erickson, it uses deliberately general, permissive language so the listener fills in the meaning from their own experience. Example: “You may find yourself relaxing more and more, in your own way.” It is used in hypnosis, relaxation and persuasive communication. See our guide to types of hypnosis.
8. Well-Formed Outcomes
A well-formed outcome is a goal set out to be clear and motivating. Ask:
- What do I want? State it in the positive (what you want, not what you want to avoid).
- How will I know I have it? What will I see, hear and feel?
- Where, when and with whom?
- Is it within my control?
- What resources do I need?
- Is it ecological? How will it affect the rest of my life and the people around me?
This overlaps with research on goal setting, which found that specific, challenging goals lead to better performance than vague goals (Locke and Latham, 2002). See also our guide to SMART goals.
9. Future Pacing
Future pacing means mentally rehearsing a future situation in which you use a new skill or response. For example, after setting a confidence anchor, imagine walking into next week’s meeting, firing the anchor and speaking clearly.
Research on mental practice found that rehearsing a task in your mind improves real performance (Driskell et al., 1994). Planning exactly when and where you will act, known as implementation intentions, also improves goal achievement (Gollwitzer and Sheeran, 2006). See our guide to visualisation techniques of high achievers.
10. Submodalities
Submodalities are the finer qualities of mental images, sounds and feelings: size, brightness, distance, colour, volume and so on. Changing them changes how strongly you feel about something.
Try it: think of a mildly stressful memory. Make the image smaller, push it further away, drain the colour and turn down any sound. Most people notice the feeling fade. Then think of a happy memory and make it bigger, brighter and closer.
11. Perceptual Positions
Perceptual positions help you see a situation from three viewpoints:
| Position | Viewpoint |
|---|---|
| First | Your own: what you think, feel and want |
| Second | The other person’s: step into their shoes |
| Third | A neutral observer watching both of you |
It is especially helpful for conflicts. See our guide to conflict resolution.
12. Modelling
Modelling is the founding method of NLP: studying how an expert achieves results, including their beliefs, strategies and physiology, and copying it. Ask a high performer: “What do you focus on? What do you say to yourself? What do you believe about this?” This connects with psychologist Albert Bandura’s research on learning by observation.
13. Circle of Excellence
Imagine a circle on the floor. Recall a time you felt at your best, and as the feeling grows, step into the circle. Repeat several times, adding more powerful memories. Before a challenge, picture the circle and step into it to recall the state. It combines anchoring with physical movement.
14. Parts Integration
When part of you wants one thing and another part wants something else, such as wanting to rest and wanting to achieve, parts integration helps. Identify each part and its positive intention, imagine each in one hand, find the shared higher purpose, and slowly bring your hands together as the parts integrate. Similar ideas appear in Internal Family Systems therapy.
15. Timeline Work
Timeline techniques ask how you picture time: past behind you or to the left, future ahead or to the right. Practitioners guide clients to “float above” their timeline to view past events from a calm distance, or to place goals on their future timeline. Tad James and Wyatt Woodsmall developed much of this work. See our profile of Wyatt Woodsmall.
Research on NLP and Related Methods
| Study | Finding |
|---|---|
| Gray et al., 2019 | Three sessions of RTM, a protocol based on the NLP rewind technique, led 71% of treated veterans to lose their PTSD diagnosis |
| Driskell et al., 1994 | Mental rehearsal, as used in future pacing, improves performance |
| Locke and Latham, 2002 | Specific, challenging goals improve performance |
| Gollwitzer and Sheeran, 2006 | Planning when, where and how to act improves goal achievement |
For help choosing between approaches, see our comparison of CBT and hypnotherapy and our guide to finding a qualified practitioner.
Frequently Asked Questions
What are NLP techniques?
NLP techniques are methods from neuro-linguistic programming for changing thoughts, feelings and behaviour, such as anchoring, reframing, the swish pattern, rapport building and the Meta Model.
Who created NLP?
Richard Bandler and John Grinder created NLP at the University of California, Santa Cruz, in the 1970s.
What is anchoring in NLP?
Anchoring links a chosen emotional state, such as confidence, to a stimulus like a touch or gesture so you can recall the state when needed.
What is the swish pattern?
The swish pattern replaces an unwanted reaction by quickly swapping a trigger image for a bright image of your desired self, repeated several times.
What is the Meta Model?
The Meta Model is a set of questions that clarify vague or limiting language, such as asking ‘Nobody? Ever?’ in response to ‘Nobody ever listens to me.’
Can I use NLP techniques on myself?
Yes. Anchoring, reframing, submodalities and well-formed outcomes are easy to practise alone. Work on trauma or phobias is best done with a trained practitioner.
Key Takeaways
- NLP was created by Richard Bandler and John Grinder in the 1970s by modelling expert therapists.
- Anchoring, reframing and the swish pattern are among the most widely used techniques.
- The Meta Model clarifies language; the Milton Model uses permissive, hypnotic language.
- Well-formed outcomes and future pacing align with research on goal setting and mental rehearsal.
- An RTM trial based on the NLP rewind technique showed strong results for veterans with PTSD.
Explore More on Self Help Supermarket
Use these pages alongside this one:
- NLP – the method in depth
- Richard Bandler – the co-founder of NLP
- Types of Hypnosis – including Ericksonian hypnosis
- SMART Goals – setting clear, measurable goals
- Visualisation Techniques of High Achievers – mental rehearsal in action
- GROW Model – a simple coaching framework
- Browse all self-help techniques – compare every method on Self Help Supermarket.
Sources
- Bandler, R., and Grinder, J. (1975). The Structure of Magic, Volume I. Palo Alto, CA: Science and Behavior Books.
- Bandler, R., and Grinder, J. (1979). Frogs into Princes. Moab, UT: Real People Press.
- Gray, R., Budden-Potts, D., and Bourke, F. (2019). Reconsolidation of Traumatic Memories for PTSD: A randomized controlled trial of 74 male veterans. Psychotherapy Research, 29(5), 621–639. https://doi.org/10.1080/10503307.2017.1408973
- Driskell, J. E., Copper, C., and Moran, A. (1994). Does mental practice enhance performance? Journal of Applied Psychology, 79(4), 481–492. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.79.4.481
- Locke, E. A., and Latham, G. P. (2002). Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation: A 35-year odyssey. American Psychologist, 57(9), 705–717. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.57.9.705
- Gollwitzer, P. M., and Sheeran, P. (2006). Implementation intentions and goal achievement: A meta-analysis of effects and processes. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 38, 69–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601%2806%2938002-1
Self Help Supermarket guides are for general information and are not a substitute for professional medical or psychological advice.